Anatomy of the Vestibular System
- What are the main components of the vestibular system?
A: The vestibular system includes the semicircular canals, utricle, saccule, and the vestibular portion of the eighth cranial nerve (CN VIII). These structures detect head motion and position to maintain balance and spatial orientation.
2. What is the function of the semicircular canals?
A: The semicircular canals detect angular (rotational) movements of the head. Each canal corresponds to a different plane (horizontal, anterior, posterior), helping detect movement in all directions.
3. How many semicircular canals are there, and how are they oriented?
A: There are three semicircular canals per ear—horizontal (lateral), anterior (superior), and posterior. They are oriented roughly at right angles to each other, allowing detection of movement in three-dimensional space.
4. What is the ampulla, and what is its role?
A: The ampulla is the enlarged base of each semicircular canal that contains the crista ampullaris, a sensory structure. It houses hair cells that detect fluid movement (endolymph), which occurs during head rotation.
5. What are the otolith organs, and what do they detect?
A: The utricle and saccule are the otolith organs. They detect linear acceleration and head position relative to gravity (e.g., tilting or moving in a straight line).
6. How do the utricle and saccule differ in function?
A: The utricle primarily senses horizontal linear acceleration (e.g., forward/backward movement), while the saccule senses vertical acceleration (e.g., elevator movement or jumping).
7. What are otoconia, and where are they found?
A: Otoconia are tiny calcium carbonate crystals embedded in a gelatinous layer above the hair cells in the utricle and saccule. They add mass and help detect gravity and linear motion by shifting in response to movement.
8. What fluid fills the vestibular structures, and what is its function?
A: The endolymph fills the membranous labyrinth (including semicircular canals and otolith organs). It moves in response to head motion and stimulates hair cells, which convert motion into nerve signals.
9. What are hair cells, and what role do they play?
A: Hair cells are mechanoreceptors located in the vestibular system that convert mechanical movement (fluid displacement) into electrical signals sent to the brain via the vestibular nerve.
10. What is the crista ampullaris?
A: It’s a sensory structure located in the ampulla of each semicircular canal. It contains hair cells and supporting cells covered by a gelatinous structure called the cupula, which bends with fluid movement.
11. What is the cupula?
A: The cupula is a gelatinous dome that sits atop the crista ampullaris in the ampulla. It moves with the flow of endolymph during angular head motion, deflecting the hair cells to signal rotation.
12. What is the vestibular nerve, and where does it go?
A: The vestibular nerve is part of the eighth cranial nerve (vestibulocochlear nerve). It carries signals from the semicircular canals, utricle, and saccule to the vestibular nuclei in the brainstem.
13. What are the vestibular nuclei, and what is their role?
A: The vestibular nuclei are located in the brainstem (pons and medulla). They process incoming signals from the vestibular nerve and coordinate eye movements, posture, and balance via connections to the cerebellum, spinal cord, and ocular motor nuclei.
14. How does the vestibular system interact with eye movements?
A: Through the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR), the vestibular system helps maintain stable vision during head movement by coordinating eye movement in the opposite direction of head motion.
15. What is Endolymph role in the vestibular system?
- Sensory Transduction (Mechanical-to-Electrical Conversion): This is the primary and most vital role of endolymph.
- In the Semicircular Canals: When your head rotates (angular acceleration), the inertia of the endolymph causes it to lag behind the movement of the semicircular ducts. This relative movement of the endolymph exerts pressure on a gelatinous structure called the cupula, which sits atop the hair cells. The bending of the cupula, in turn, bends the cilia (tiny hair-like projections) of the hair cells.
- In the Otolith Organs (Utricle and Saccule): When your head undergoes linear acceleration (forward/backward, up/down) or changes position relative to gravity, the otoconia (tiny calcium carbonate crystals) embedded in a gelatinous membrane within these organs shift. This shift drags the underlying gelatinous membrane, causing the cilia of the hair cells to bend.
- Electrochemical Gradient for Hair Cell Activation: The high potassium concentration in the endolymph creates a strong electrochemical gradient (an electrical potential difference) between the endolymph and the inside of the hair cells. When the hair cells’ cilia bend, specialized ion channels on their tips open, allowing a rapid influx of positively charged potassium ions from the endolymph into the hair cells. This influx causes the hair cells to depolarize (become electrically excited), leading to the release of neurotransmitters that signal the vestibular nerve and ultimately your brain about head movement and position.
16. What is the role of Perilymph in the vestibular system?
- Mechanical Cushioning: It provides a protective bath for the membranous labyrinth, helping to absorb shock and protect the delicate sensory structures from external forces.
- Nutrient Supply: It helps to nourish the cells of the inner ear.
- Fluid Dynamics: While endolymph is the primary fluid involved in stimulating hair cells, perilymph also plays a role in the overall fluid dynamics of the inner ear. Changes in perilymph pressure can affect endolymphatic pressure and thus vestibular function.
17. What are the main differences between Endolymph and Perilymph in the Vestibular system?
Endolymph:
- Location: Endolymph fills the membranous labyrinth itself. This includes the semicircular ducts (within the semicircular canals) and the utricle and saccule (the otolith organs).
- Composition: This is its most unique and crucial feature. Unlike most extracellular fluids in the body, endolymph is similar to intracellular fluid, meaning it is extremely high in potassium (K+) and very low in sodium (Na+). This unusual ionic composition is actively maintained by specialized cells (like the dark cells in the vestibular system and stria vascularis in the cochlea).
Perilymph:
- Location: Perilymph fills the space between the bony labyrinth (the hard, outer casing of the inner ear carved into the temporal bone) and the membranous labyrinth (the soft, fluid-filled sacs and ducts within the bony labyrinth). Think of it as a protective, cushioning fluid that surrounds the delicate membranous structures.
- Composition: Its ionic composition is similar to that of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and extracellular fluid, meaning it is high in sodium (Na+) and low in potassium (K+).
17. What is the mechanism of VOR?
- Head Movement Detection: The semicircular canals of your inner ear are specialized to detect rotational movements of your head (e.g., turning your head left or right, nodding up and down, or tilting side to side). The fluid inside these canals (endolymph) moves with head motion, bending tiny hair cells.
- Signal Transmission: These hair cells convert the mechanical movement into electrical signals, which are then sent via the vestibular nerve to the vestibular nuclei in the brainstem.
- Neural Pathways to Eye Muscles: From the vestibular nuclei, signals are directly relayed to the cranial nerves (III, IV, and VI) that control the extraocular muscles (the muscles that move your eyes).
- Compensatory Eye Movement: The brainstem then sends excitatory signals to the eye muscles that move your eyes in the opposite direction of your head movement, and inhibitory signals to the antagonistic muscles. For example:
- If you turn your head to the right, the right horizontal semicircular canal is excited, and the left is inhibited. This leads to signals that cause your eyes to move to the left.
- If you nod your head up, specific vertical semicircular canals are activated, leading to eye movements downward.
- Maintaining Retinal Stability: This counter-rotation of the eyes matches the speed of your head movement, effectively “canceling out” the head motion and keeping the visual image fixed on the fovea (the central, high-acuity part of your retina).
18. How is the vestibular system connected to balance?
- Detection of Movement: The vestibular system comprises two main parts:
- Semicircular canals: These three fluid-filled loops detect rotational movements of your head (like nodding, shaking your head, or tilting it to the side). As your head moves, the fluid inside the canals shifts, bending tiny hair cells that send signals to your brain.
- Otolith organs (utricle and saccule): These organs detect linear movements (like moving forward/backward or up/down in an elevator) and the pull of gravity, informing your brain about your head’s position relative to the ground. They contain small crystals (otoconia) embedded in a gel-like membrane, which shift with movement and stimulate hair cells.
- Information Integration: The signals from the vestibular system are sent to your brain, specifically to areas like the brainstem and cerebellum. Your brain then integrates this information with input from other sensory systems, including:
- Vision: What you see helps orient you in your surroundings.
- Proprioception: Sensory information from your muscles and joints tells your brain about your body’s position and movement.
- Motor Output for Balance Control: Based on this integrated sensory information, your brain sends signals to your muscles and eyes to make rapid, automatic adjustments to maintain balance. Two key reflexes are involved:
- Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR): This reflex stabilizes your gaze by causing your eyes to move in the opposite direction of your head movements. This ensures your vision remains clear even when you’re moving.
- Vestibulospinal reflex (VSR): This reflex automatically adjusts your body’s posture and muscle tone to prevent you from falling, especially when you encounter uneven surfaces or changes in your position.
19. What is the role of the cerebellum in vestibular function?
- Integration of Sensory Information: The cerebellum is a master integrator. It receives extensive sensory input from:
- The vestibular system: Direct signals from the inner ear (semicircular canals and otolith organs) about head movement and position.
- Proprioceptors: Information from muscles, tendons, and joints throughout the body about body position and movement.
- Vision: Visual cues about the environment and self-motion.
- Motor cortex: Commands from the cerebral cortex regarding intended movements. This integration allows the cerebellum to create a comprehensive picture of the body’s current state and intended actions, crucial for effective balance control.
- Refinement of Vestibular Reflexes:
- Vestibulo-ocular Reflex (VOR) Adaptation: The VOR ensures stable vision during head movements. The cerebellum is absolutely essential for adapting and fine-tuning the VOR. If you wear new glasses that magnify or minify the world, your VOR needs to adjust so your eyes still move appropriately to keep images clear. This learning process, known as VOR adaptation, is heavily dependent on the cerebellum. It uses “error signals” (e.g., visual slip on the retina when the VOR isn’t perfectly compensating) to modify the reflex’s gain (the ratio of eye velocity to head velocity).
- Vestibulospinal Reflex (VSR) Modulation: The VSR helps maintain posture and balance by adjusting muscle tone in the trunk and limbs. The cerebellum modulates these reflexes, ensuring that postural adjustments are smooth, appropriate, and anticipatory to maintain stability. For example, if you’re about to step on an uneven surface, the cerebellum helps refine the necessary muscle adjustments to prevent a fall.
- Motor Learning and Adaptation: The cerebellum is a key player in motor learning, including the learning of new balance strategies. When you encounter a new environment (e.g., walking on ice) or learn a new motor skill (e.g., riding a bike), the cerebellum helps to adjust and optimize motor commands based on sensory feedback and predictions. It uses a trial-and-error process to refine movements and minimize errors, leading to more efficient and coordinated balance control over time.
- Coordination and Smoothness of Movement: Damage to the cerebellum leads to a characteristic set of symptoms, collectively known as ataxia.
- Predictive Control: The cerebellum is thought to generate “internal models” of the body and its interaction with the environment. These models allow the brain to predict the sensory consequences of motor commands, enabling anticipatory adjustments to posture and eye movements even before sensory feedback arrives. This predictive capability is crucial for maintaining dynamic balance.
20. What is the macula in the vestibular system?
A: The macula is the sensory region in the utricle and saccule containing hair cells. It detects linear acceleration and gravitational forces due to displacement of otoconia.
21. Why are there two vestibular systems (one in each ear)?
A: Having bilateral vestibular systems allows the brain to compare input from both ears, enabling accurate detection of direction and magnitude of head movement, enhancing balance and orientation.
22. What happens when the vestibular system is damaged?
A: Damage can cause vertigo, imbalance, nystagmus, nausea, and difficulty with coordination and gaze stabilization, depending on the location and extent of the damage.
23. How do semicircular canals achieve directional sensitivity?
A: Each canal is paired with a canal on the opposite side of the head. When the head rotates, endolymph flow excites hair cells on one side and inhibits the other, providing the brain with precise directional movement information.
QUIZ
1. Which of the following structures is part of the vestibular system?
A. Cochlea
B. Semicircular canals
C. Ossicles
✅ Correct Answer: B. Semicircular canals
2. How many semicircular canals are present in total (both ears)?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 6
✅ Correct Answer: C. 6
3. What type of head movement do the semicircular canals detect?
A. Linear acceleration
B. Sound waves
C. Angular (rotational) acceleration
✅ Correct Answer: C. Angular (rotational) acceleration
4. What is the function of the otolith organs?
A. Detect sound
B. Detect rotational head movements
C. Detect linear acceleration and gravity
✅ Correct Answer: C. Detect linear acceleration and gravity
5. The utricle primarily detects:
A. Rotational movement
B. Vertical movement
C. Horizontal linear acceleration
✅ Correct Answer: C. Horizontal linear acceleration
6. What are otoconia composed of?
A. Fatty acids
B. Potassium ions
C. Calcium carbonate crystals
✅ Correct Answer: C. Calcium carbonate crystals
7. What fluid fills the membranous labyrinth?
A. Perilymph
B. Endolymph
C. Plasma
✅ Correct Answer: B. Endolymph
8. Hair cells transduce mechanical signals into:
A. Light signals
B. Thermal signals
C. Electrical signals
✅ Correct Answer: C. Electrical signals
9. What reflex keeps your vision stable during head movement?
A. Startle reflex
B. Acoustic reflex
C. Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)
✅ Correct Answer: C. Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)
10. The macula is found in:
A. Cochlea
B. Ampulla
C. Utricle and saccule
✅ Correct Answer: C. Utricle and saccule
PHYSIOLOGY OF VESTIBULAR SYSTEM
1. What is the primary function of the semicircular canals?
Anterior (Superior) Canal: Primarily sensitive to head movements in the sagittal plane, like nodding “yes.”
Posterior (Inferior) Canal: Also detects movements in the sagittal plane, but in a diagonal direction, like tilting your head towards your shoulder. It works in a functional pair with the contralateral anterior canal.
Horizontal (Lateral) Canal: Sensitive to head movements in the transverse plane, like shaking your head “no.”
2. What is the semicircular canals mechanism of action?
When your head rotates, the bony labyrinth moves, but the endolymph inside the membranous semicircular canals lags behind due to inertia.
This relative movement of the endolymph pushes against the cupula.
The bending of the cupula deflects the stereocilia (and kinocilium, in vestibular hair cells) of the hair cells within the crista ampullaris.
These bending opens or closes mechanically gated ion channels in the hair cells, leading to depolarization or hyperpolarization.
The change in electrical potential alters the release of neurotransmitters at the synapse with the vestibular nerve fibers (part of the VIII cranial nerve).
These nerve fibers transmit signals to the brainstem, where the information is processed to give you the sensation of rotation and trigger compensatory reflexes like the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR), which stabilizes your gaze during head movements.
3. What type of fluid is found inside the semicircular canals?
A: Endolymph is the potassium-rich fluid inside the membranous labyrinth, including the semicircular canals.
High in potassium (K+) ions (around 140-150 mEq/L)
Low in sodium (Na+) ions (around 15 mEq/L)
4. What are the main differences between Endolymph and Perilymph?
Feature
Endolymph
Perilymph
Location
Within the membranous labyrinth (cochlear duct, semicircular canals, utricle, saccule)
Between the bony labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth (scala vestibuli, scala tympani)
Ionic Composition
High in potassium (K+), low in sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+)
High in sodium (Na+), low in potassium (K+) and calcium (Ca2+)
Origin
Secreted by the stria vascularis and dark cells
Derived from blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Electrical Potential
Positive (+80 to +90 mV relative to perilymph)
Negative (0 mV relative to itself)
Function
Plays a vital role in the excitation of hair cells for sound and vestibular transduction
Transmits vibrations from the oval window and provides a fluid environment for the membranous labyrinth
Similarity to
Intracellular fluid
Extracellular fluid, CSF
5. Which part of the semicircular canal bends in response to fluid movement, activating hair cells?
When the head rotates in the plane of a specific semicircular canal:
The bony labyrinth and the semicircular duct move with the head.
The endolymph, due to its inertia, tends to lag behind.
This relative movement of the endolymph causes it to exert pressure against the cupula.
The cupula then bends (or deflects) in the direction of the endolymph flow.
The bending of the cupula, in turn, causes the embedded stereocilia of the hair cells to bend.
This mechanical bending of the stereocilia opens ion channels in the hair cell membrane, leading to a change in the hair cell’s electrical potential (depolarization or hyperpolarization).
This change in electrical potential triggers the release of neurotransmitters, which then generate signals in the afferent nerve fibers of the vestibular nerve, sending information about the head’s rotation to the brain.
6. The orientation of the semicircular canals allows the detection of motion in which directions?
A: The orientation of the semicircular canals allows the detection of rotational (angular) motion of the head in all three planes of three-dimensional space.
Each ear has three semicircular canals, and they are arranged roughly perpendicular to each other, similar to the three axes in a Cartesian coordinate system (X, Y, and Z). This anatomical arrangement allows them to sense rotation around any axis.
7. What type of motion every single semicircular canal detects?
Horizontal (or Lateral) Semicircular Canal:
Orientation: Lies in an approximately horizontal plane when the head is tilted forward by about 30 degrees (which is the typical position of the head when standing upright and looking straight ahead).
Motion Detected: Primarily detects rotational movements around a vertical axis, like shaking your head “no” (yaw axis rotation).
Anterior (or Superior) Semicircular Canal:
Orientation: Lies in a vertical plane, oriented diagonally (about 45 degrees from the sagittal and frontal planes).
Motion Detected: Primarily detects rotational movements in the sagittal plane, like nodding your head “yes” (pitch axis rotation), or somersaulting forward.
Posterior (or Inferior) Semicircular Canal:
Orientation: Also lies in a vertical plane, oriented diagonally and roughly perpendicular to the anterior canal.
Motion Detected: Primarily detects rotational movements in the frontal plane, like tilting your head towards your shoulder (roll axis rotation), or doing a cartwheel.
8. How does Semicircular Canal pairing system work?
A: To achieve complete 3D detection, the semicircular canals work in pairs:
The right horizontal canal works with the left horizontal canal.
The right anterior canal works with the left posterior canal.
The left anterior canal works with the right posterior canal.
9. What does the Push Pull system mean?
A: The “push-pull” system means that when the head rotates in a specific plane, one canal in the pair is excited (increased firing rate) while its partner is inhibited (decreased firing rate). This complementary signaling provides the brain with precise information about the direction and speed of head rotation.
10. What is Ampulla?
A: An ampulla (plural: ampullae) is a bulbous or dilated enlargement at the base of each of the three semicircular canals.
Location of Sensory Organs: The ampulla is crucial because it houses the primary sensory organ for detecting angular acceleration (rotational head movements). This sensory structure is called the crista ampullaris.
Crista Ampullaris: This is a ridge or mound of specialized tissue within the ampulla. It contains the actual hair cells, which are the mechanoreceptors responsible for converting mechanical movement into electrical signals.
Cupula: Overlying the crista ampullaris is a gelatinous, dome-shaped structure called the cupula. The “hairs” (stereocilia and kinocilium) of the hair cells are embedded within this cupula, and the cupula extends across the entire lumen (opening) of the ampulla, forming a barrier to the endolymph.
111. What does Ampulla do?
A: It plays a crucial role in detecting rotational (angular) movements of the head.
This is how:
When the head rotates, the endolymph (the fluid inside the semicircular canal) lags behind due to inertia.
This relative movement of the endolymph exerts pressure on the cupula.
The cupula then bends (deflects) in the direction of the endolymph flow.
This bending of the cupula, in turn, bends the embedded stereocilia of the hair cells.
The bending of the hair cells’ stereocilia causes changes in their electrical potential, leading to the generation of nerve impulses that are sent to the brain via the vestibular nerve.
12. How do Utricle and Saccule react to head tilt-Static Equilibrium?
When you tilt your head, gravity acts on the heavy otoconia.
The weight of the otoconia causes the otolithic membrane to shift or slide relative to the macula.
This shearing motion bends the stereocilia of the hair cells embedded within the gelatinous layer.
Depending on the direction of the bend (towards or away from the kinocilium), the hair cells either depolarize (increase firing rate) or hyperpolarize (decrease firing rate).
This change in electrical activity generates nerve impulses that are sent to the brain via the vestibular nerve (specifically, the superior vestibular nerve for the utricle and the inferior vestibular nerve for the saccule).
The brain interprets these signals to understand your head’s static position relative to gravity (e.g., whether your head is upright, tilted forward, or tilted to the side).
13. How do Utricle and Saccule react to linear acceleration-Dynamic Equilibrium?
When your head undergoes linear acceleration (e.g., starting to walk forward, accelerating in a car, or going up/down in an elevator), the otoconia, due to their inertia, lag behind the movement of the head and the macula.
This inertial lag causes the otolithic membrane to slide or shear across the hair cells.
Again, this shearing motion bends the hair cells’ stereocilia, leading to changes in their electrical activity and the generation of nerve impulses.
The brain interprets these signals as linear acceleration (e.g., knowing you’re moving forward, backward, up, or down).
14. What is the Stereocilia function in the vestibular system?
I. Semicircular Canals (Rotational Motion):
Movement of the endolymph in the semicircular canals deflects the cupula (the gelatinous cap in the ampulla).
The bending of the cupula, in turn, bends the stereocilia of the hair cells embedded within it.
Bending the stereocilia towards the kinocilium (in vestibular hair cells) depolarizes the cell, increasing nerve firing.
Bending them away from the kinocilium hyperpolarizes the cell, decreasing nerve firing. This directional sensitivity is key to detecting rotational direction.
Otolith Organs (Utricle and Saccule – Linear Motion & Gravity):
The weight and inertia of the otoconia (calcium carbonate crystals) embedded in the gelatinous layer overlying the hair cells cause the otolithic membrane to shift during linear acceleration or head tilt.
This shearing motion directly bends the stereocilia.
Similar to the canals, the direction of bending relative to the kinocilium determines whether the hair cell depolarizes or hyperpolarizes, signaling the brain about linear movement or static head position relative to gravity.
15. What is the kinocilium function in the vestibular system?
I. Establishes Hair Cell Polarity:
Each vestibular hair cell has a single kinocilium, which is typically the tallest cilium in the hair bundle.
The kinocilium is positioned at one end of the staircase-like arrangement of stereocilia. This specific anatomical orientation defines the morphological polarity of the hair cell.
This polarity dictates the direction in which the hair bundle needs to be bent to either excite (depolarize) or inhibit (hyperpolarize) the hair cell.
II. Directional Sensitivity and Signal Modulation:
Bending of stereocilia towards the kinocilium: This causes tension on the tip links (which connect the stereocilia), mechanically opening ion channels. The influx of positive ions (primarily potassium) into the hair cell leads to depolarization (excitation) and an increase in the firing rate of the associated vestibular nerve fiber.
Bending of stereocilia away from the kinocilium: This releases the tension on the tip links, causing the ion channels to close. This prevents ion influx, leading to hyperpolarization (inhibition) and a decrease in the firing rate of the vestibular nerve fiber.
Mechanical Link and Force Transmission:
It acts as a mechanical lever or pivot. In the semicircular canals, it is embedded in the cupula. In the otolith organs, it is embedded in the otolithic membrane. This structural connection ensures that the forces generated by fluid movement or gravity are effectively transmitted to the stereocilia.
QUIZ
1. What is the main function of the semicircular canals?
A. Detect linear acceleration
B. Detect angular acceleration
C. Control balance through hearing
✅ Correct Answer: B
2. Which fluid is found inside the membranous semicircular canals?
A. Perilymph
B. Cerebrospinal fluid
C. Endolymph
✅ Correct Answer: C
3. Which part of the semicircular canal contains the sensory organ that detects rotation?
A. Ampulla
B. Saccule
C. Macula
✅ Correct Answer: A
4. What is the name of the structure inside the ampulla that contains the hair cells?
A. Otoconia
B. Crista ampullaris
C. Organ of Corti
✅ Correct Answer: B
5. What is the gelatinous structure that covers the hair cells in the ampulla?
A. Cupula
B. Tectorial membrane
C. Otolithic membrane
✅ Correct Answer: A
6. The semicircular canals are most sensitive to which type of movement?
A. Gravity
B. Angular or rotational movement
C. Sound pressure waves
✅ Correct Answer: B
7. The horizontal semicircular canal detects motion in which direction?
A. Side to side (yaw)
B. Up and down
C. Forward and backward
✅ Correct Answer: A
8. The anterior semicircular canal is primarily sensitive to what type of motion?
A. Nodding “yes”
B. Tilting head to shoulder
C. Shaking “no”
✅ Correct Answer: A
9. What causes the cupula to bend during head rotation?
A. Gravity acting on otoconia
B. Endolymph lag due to inertia
C. Sound waves entering the cochlea
✅ Correct Answer: B
10. The crista ampullaris responds to which type of acceleration?
A. Angular
B. Static
C. Linear
✅ Correct Answer: A
11. The otolith organs detect:
A. Rotational head movement
B. Static and dynamic linear acceleration
C. Pitch changes in sound
✅ Correct Answer: B
12. What happens when stereocilia bend toward the kinocilium?
A. Depolarization
B. Hyperpolarization
C. No response
✅ Correct Answer: A
13. Which of the following best describes endolymph?
A. High in potassium, low in sodium
B. Same composition as plasma
C. High in sodium, low in potassium
✅ Correct Answer: A
14. What structure provides the mechanical stimulus for hair cell deflection in the otolith organs?
A. Cupula
B. Otolithic membrane with otoconia
C. Tympanic membrane
✅ Correct Answer: B
15. Where is the cupula located?
A. B. Inside the saccule
B. Within the cochlear duct
C. Over the crista ampullaris in the ampulla
✅ Correct Answer: C